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ТЕХНОСФЕРА_РИЦ
Issue #1/2024
M. E. Stepanov, U. A. Khokhryakova, T. V. Egorova, K. A. Magaryan, A. V. Naumov
Shedding Light on DNA Origami
Shedding Light on DNA Origami
DOI: 10.22184/1993-7296.FRos.2024.18.1.72.80
One of the key issues of modern photonics is the development of methods for the cost-efficient nanostructure synthesis with a given chemical composition and morphology. In recent years, the DNA origami method has been rapidly gaining popularity along with the conventional methods of CVD, epitaxy, lithography, laser printing and ablation, colloidal and electrochemical synthesis. The article describes the principles of DNA origami and provides some examples of its applications.
One of the key issues of modern photonics is the development of methods for the cost-efficient nanostructure synthesis with a given chemical composition and morphology. In recent years, the DNA origami method has been rapidly gaining popularity along with the conventional methods of CVD, epitaxy, lithography, laser printing and ablation, colloidal and electrochemical synthesis. The article describes the principles of DNA origami and provides some examples of its applications.
Shedding Light on DNA Origami
M. E. Stepanov 1, U. A. Khokhryakova 1, T. V. Egorova 1, K. A. Magaryan 1, A. V. Naumov 1, 2
Moscow Pedagogical State University (MPGU), Moscow, Russia
Lebedev Physical Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Troitsk branch, Moscow, Troitsk, Russia
One of the key issues of modern photonics is the development of methods for the cost-efficient nanostructure synthesis with a given chemical composition and morphology. In recent years, the DNA origami method has been rapidly gaining popularity along with the conventional methods of CVD, epitaxy, lithography, laser printing and ablation, colloidal and electrochemical synthesis. The article describes the principles of DNA origami and provides some examples of its applications.
Keywords: DNA origami, nanostructures.
Article received: December 12, 2023
Article accepted: January 19, 2024
Introduction
In Japanese culture, a central place is occupied by the sun goddess Amaterasu who, according to the ancient beliefs, provides people not only with the light and life, but also teaches them many skills, including the ability to make paper. In one step, this skill will give rise to origami, the art of folding paper without compromising its integrity. It is no coincidence that the sun goddess gives this gift: it symbolizes the ability of light to transform. The heat and light give life to a tree, the tree is transformed into paper (that is why it cannot be cut in traditional origami), the paper can be turned back into heat and light using the fire. It is interesting that even centuries later the modern research can follow a similar procedure. However, now we are talking about molecular origami, where a DNA molecule is folded instead of paper, while creating nanostructures of arbitrary shape, capable of transforming light fields on a controlled basis, thereby offering possibilities for its application in photonics.
During the period of time devoted to the study of nanosized materials, a wide variety of practices for their development have emerged [1, 2], while opening up new physical principles and applications (see, for example, photonics of semiconductor quantum dots [3, 4]). Thus, some of the most interesting nanostructure establishment methods include the following: vapor-phase deposition [5], molecular beam epitaxy [6], electron beam lithography [7], a combination of epitaxy and electron lithography [8, 9], photo-nanolithography [10], direct laser writing [11], laser ablation [12], reverse STED [13, 14], photopolymerization [15, 16], atomic camera-obscura [17], optical tweezers [18, 19], template synthesis [20], electrochemical synthesis in the porous structures (pores of track-etched membranes) [21–23], colloidal synthesis [24], colloidal synthesis in the liquid crystal mesophase [25], self-assembly [26, 27], laser-enhanced growth in superfluid helium [28].
Some of the listed methods apply the approach of grinding large workpieces (top-down approach), while others use the growth of nanostructures from atoms and clusters (bottom-up approach). The DNA origami method falls into the latter category. It is based on the use of DNA molecules for the controlled nanostructure assembly with almost any shape with high repeatability and accuracy, and assumes the possible targeting of any DNA nanostructure element for subsequent modernization [29–31].
Recent years have been marked by a rapid growth of interest in the DNA origami method (Fig. 1) due to the highest potential of this technique in various applications including the photonics tools and methods. This review provides an introduction to the fundamentals of DNA origami. The article briefly considers a nature of DNA and its structure from a molecular point of view; it also discusses principles underlying the use of the DNA molecule properties to control its geometric shape at the nanoscale; and it provides some examples of the DNA origami applications.
1. Molecular structure of DNA: complementarity principle
The DNA molecule (Fig. 1a) is a natural biopolymer, each link of which (nucleotide) consists of a nitrogenous base and a phosphoric acid residue (phosphate group), connected by the deoxyribose sugar.
Individual nucleotides are able to combine into the longer molecules due to the fact that deoxyribose can place two phosphate groups on different sides (on the side of 3’ and 5’ carbon in Figure 1), so that the neighboring nucleotides can be located on top of each other providing a basis for the chains. If the chains consist of only a few nucleotides, then the compounds are called oligonucleotides; if the chains consist of many nucleotides, such compounds are called polynucleotides or nucleic acids.
For further purposes, it is important to note that the entire chain in an aqueous solution takes the form of a helix, in which the nitrogenous bases are closer to the helix axis and are located above each other with a slight twiststabilizing the molecule along the chain by the so-called π-π interaction. The phosphate groups remain at the helix periphery. Under physiological conditions (pH ≈ 7.4) they lose hydrogen cation becoming negatively charged which stabilizes the DNA helix in the direction perpendicular to the chain.
Each human cell capable of cell division contains about 2 meters of DNA, tightly packed into a nucleus with the dimensions of ~10 µm. DNA is present in most living cells for a certain reason: this molecule acts as an instruction for protein assembly from amino acids, encoding this information in the form of a sequence of nitrogenous bases that are included in the DNA nucleotides. The specific interaction of bases allows the cell to copy its DNA strand for transmission to a daughter cell. The same interaction underlies the DNA origami method and therefore deserves a more detailed description.
Each nucleotide (building block of the DNA chain) contains one of four nitrogenous bases: Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Guanine (G) or Cytosine (C). Due to the special structure of these molecules (Fig. 1a), the nitrogenous bases efficiently interact with each other only in pairs: the G-C pair generates a triple hydrogen bond, the A-T pair generates a double one (Fig. 1b). Due to this specific interaction, the so-called “complementarity principle”, two DNA sections can connect when approaching each other and form a linked double-stranded structure only when the suitable letters appear in the opposite section.
Thus an AAAA oligonucleotide will combine with a TTTT oligonucleotide, since in this case each base will bind its complementary pair, generating a double-stranded helix section consisting of 4 links. The TTTG oligonucleotide will be 3/4 bound by the AAAA oligonucleotide since one pair will not be formed. In this case the unpaired links A and G will remain in a partially free state in the solution (“sticky ends”), while interacting with water (Fig. 1b). In the case of TTGG, only 2 / 4 of the bonds are formed, in the case of TGGG – 1 / 4 bonds. If the second oligonucleotide does not have any complementary bases (for example, AAAA or CCCC), there will be no interaction that can compete in bond energy with water, therefore, the chain will not be formed.
In practice two more circumstances need to be considered: 1) the hydrogen bonds have a cooperative effect: each subsequent one is formed easier than the previous (the bond energy depends on the number of links in a nonlinear way); 2) the environmental thermal influence tends to break the bonds: with a gradual increase in temperature, the weakest double-stranded pair AAAA – TGGG will be separated (“melted”) first, and the AAAA – TTTT pair will be the last one. Thus, a properly chosen thermal treatment provides the basis of the DNA origami self-assembly process.
It is necessary to pay attention to one more feature of the DNA molecular structure: if one observes the bond order inside the complementary DNA chains, he could notice that they alternate in different ways, as if one of them was ascending (from the 3’ sugar atom to the 5’), and the second was descending (from 5’ to 3’). This is due to deoxyribose asymmetry: the detached 5’ carbon is located only on one side. The biological processes in cells involving DNA have a certain direction (for example, the enzymatic DNA synthesis in a cell proceeds from 5’ to 3’). The DNA origami simulation and assembly processes must also consider the directional properties; for this purpose, the 3’ end is usually designated in the layouts by an arrow.
Finally, the general geometric parameters of the DNA chain are given in Fig. 1c. They are important to us since they set fundamental restrictions on the assembly accuracy when using the DNA origami method. The distance between neighboring nitrogenous bases in the chain is ~0.34 nm, the full helix pitch distance corresponds to ~10.67 base pairs, and its diameter is ~2 nm.
2. Principal approaches to the DNA origami assembly
In the first papers devoted to the use of DNA nanotechnology [32] has been proposed to apply the so-called Holliday junctions representing the short partially complementary oligonucleotides capable of forming a lattice due to their sticky ends (Fig. 2a, b). Despite the variety of lattices that can be obtained in this way, the method has turned out to be inefficient and soon has given way to the revolutionary approach proposed by Rothemund [33]. According to this method, the long single-stranded DNA (“scaffold”) is folded in solution using the specially selected short oligonucleotides that act as the staples (Fig. 2c). Currently, most papers are based on this method, the single-stranded DNA of the bacteriophage m8mh13 consisting of ~7 250 nucleotides being the most often scaffold choice. Synthetic oligonucleotides with the length of several tens of nucleotides are used as the staples.
The main 2D-origami assembly concept in the Rothemund’s approach (Fig. 3a) was as follows: since the scaffold is a single-stranded DNA helix with a length of 10.67 bases, each nitrogenous base is rotated relative to the previous one by 360/10.67 ≈ 33.73°. This means that every 16th base will alternate the “up” and “down” directions, since 16 links correspond to one and a half turns of the helix (16*33.73 ≈ 540°). Thus, if the staples are selected so that their free ends fall on every 16th scaffold nucleotide, they can be used to tie its various sections, folding the scaffold into a “snake” in a 2D layer. Some examples of 2D nanostructures thus made are shown in Fig. 4a.
Over time [34], the same principle was used to exit from the planar 2D geometry into the third dimension. To do this, it was proposed to use every 7th nucleotide in the scaffold instead of every 16th (Fig. 3b) which made it possible to connect individual scaffold sections into a honeycomb lattice with the angles of 120°. Based on the honeycomb lattice stable molecular 3D DNA origami structures can be made. The method was further developed and today it is known as a multilayer DNA origami [31].
It should be noted that other approaches to 3D DNA origami are being developed. One example is based on the tensional integrity engineering principle (“tensegrity”), when the structure is self-stabilized due to accurately adjusted balance of elements used for compression and tension. This approach hitherto used in architecture (see, for example, the Kurilpa Bridge, Brisbane, Australia) can be successfully transferred to the DNA origami nanoobjects. For example, in [37] it is shown that DNA nanoprisms can be made using the tensegrity design principle.
At present, DNA origami is a living and dynamically developing area, offering new approaches and creating new opportunities for 3D nanodesign [38]. Fig 4b shows an example of 3D DNA origami box which can be readily opened by an addition of special key oligonucleotides. The box can contain whatever one would choose, examples being fluorescent dyes or drugs. The outer walls of the box can be modified for targeted delivery to protect contents from environment. Fig 4c provides an example of arbitrary-shape molecular design created with the DNA origami, which can serve as an illustration of unlimited capabilities of the method.
Conclusion
DNA origami is a method of controlled bottom-up molecular assembly of geometric nanostructures, which provides an ability to target each element of the nanostructure for attaching almost any chemical agent: from small dye molecules to the proteins and metal nanoparticles. The nanometer precision in the arrangement of nano-objects and high reproducibility of this method open the door to many prospective applications in various research fields. We are planning to develop this thesis some more and talk about DNA origami practice as well as its importance for a number of applied and theoretical problems in photonics in the second part of the article.
Acknowledgments
The work was carried out with financial support from the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation within the framework of the state assignment of the Moscow Pedagogical State University “Physics of nanostructured materials and highly sensitive sensors: synthesis, fundamental research and applications in photonics, life sciences, quantum and nanotechnologies”.
AUTHORS
Stepanov Maksim Evgenievich, junior researcher, Moscow Pedagogical State University (MPGU), Shpolskiy Department of Theoretical Physics, junior researcher at the Laboratory of Physics of Advanced Materials and Nanostructures, Moscow, Russia.
RSCI ID: 334465, Scopus ID: 57195265809, ResearcherID: AAB‑6181-2022,
ORCID: 0000-0002-0332-1235.
Khokhryakova Uliana Aleksandrovna – Bachelor in fundamental physics of Moscow Pedagogical State University, research assistant at the Youth Laboratory of Biophotonics and Nanoengineering, Moscow, Russia.
Egorova Tatiana Vladimirovna, Cand. of Sc. (Biolog.), head of the Youth Laboratory of Biophotonics and Nanoengineering< MPGU, Moscow, Russia.
Scopus ID: 56868341400, ORCID: 0000-0002-7554-5246,
ResearcherID: P‑9982-2017.
Magaryan Konstantin Arutyunovich, Cand. of Sc.(Phys.&Math.), MPSU, Shpolskiy Department of Theor.Physics, senior researcher, Lab. of Physics of Advanced Materials and Nanostructures.
RSCI ID: 723988, ResearcherID: A‑4208-2014, ORCID: 0000-0003-4754-4657.
Naumov Andrey Vitalievich, corresponding member of the RAS, Dr. of Sc. (Phys.&Math.), head of the Troitsk branch of the Lebedev Physical Institute, head of the Shpol’skii theor. physics chair, MPGU, associate prof., Moscow, Russia.
RSCI ID: 35867, Scopus ID: 7201349036, ResearcherID: E‑8905-2010,
ORCID: 0000-0001-7938-9802.
CONFLICT OF INTERESTS
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. All authors took part in preparation of the article and supplemented the manuscript in terms of their scope of work.
CONTRIBUTION
OF THE COMPOSITE AUTHORS
The article has been prepared based on the work of all composite authors.
M. E. Stepanov 1, U. A. Khokhryakova 1, T. V. Egorova 1, K. A. Magaryan 1, A. V. Naumov 1, 2
Moscow Pedagogical State University (MPGU), Moscow, Russia
Lebedev Physical Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Troitsk branch, Moscow, Troitsk, Russia
One of the key issues of modern photonics is the development of methods for the cost-efficient nanostructure synthesis with a given chemical composition and morphology. In recent years, the DNA origami method has been rapidly gaining popularity along with the conventional methods of CVD, epitaxy, lithography, laser printing and ablation, colloidal and electrochemical synthesis. The article describes the principles of DNA origami and provides some examples of its applications.
Keywords: DNA origami, nanostructures.
Article received: December 12, 2023
Article accepted: January 19, 2024
Introduction
In Japanese culture, a central place is occupied by the sun goddess Amaterasu who, according to the ancient beliefs, provides people not only with the light and life, but also teaches them many skills, including the ability to make paper. In one step, this skill will give rise to origami, the art of folding paper without compromising its integrity. It is no coincidence that the sun goddess gives this gift: it symbolizes the ability of light to transform. The heat and light give life to a tree, the tree is transformed into paper (that is why it cannot be cut in traditional origami), the paper can be turned back into heat and light using the fire. It is interesting that even centuries later the modern research can follow a similar procedure. However, now we are talking about molecular origami, where a DNA molecule is folded instead of paper, while creating nanostructures of arbitrary shape, capable of transforming light fields on a controlled basis, thereby offering possibilities for its application in photonics.
During the period of time devoted to the study of nanosized materials, a wide variety of practices for their development have emerged [1, 2], while opening up new physical principles and applications (see, for example, photonics of semiconductor quantum dots [3, 4]). Thus, some of the most interesting nanostructure establishment methods include the following: vapor-phase deposition [5], molecular beam epitaxy [6], electron beam lithography [7], a combination of epitaxy and electron lithography [8, 9], photo-nanolithography [10], direct laser writing [11], laser ablation [12], reverse STED [13, 14], photopolymerization [15, 16], atomic camera-obscura [17], optical tweezers [18, 19], template synthesis [20], electrochemical synthesis in the porous structures (pores of track-etched membranes) [21–23], colloidal synthesis [24], colloidal synthesis in the liquid crystal mesophase [25], self-assembly [26, 27], laser-enhanced growth in superfluid helium [28].
Some of the listed methods apply the approach of grinding large workpieces (top-down approach), while others use the growth of nanostructures from atoms and clusters (bottom-up approach). The DNA origami method falls into the latter category. It is based on the use of DNA molecules for the controlled nanostructure assembly with almost any shape with high repeatability and accuracy, and assumes the possible targeting of any DNA nanostructure element for subsequent modernization [29–31].
Recent years have been marked by a rapid growth of interest in the DNA origami method (Fig. 1) due to the highest potential of this technique in various applications including the photonics tools and methods. This review provides an introduction to the fundamentals of DNA origami. The article briefly considers a nature of DNA and its structure from a molecular point of view; it also discusses principles underlying the use of the DNA molecule properties to control its geometric shape at the nanoscale; and it provides some examples of the DNA origami applications.
1. Molecular structure of DNA: complementarity principle
The DNA molecule (Fig. 1a) is a natural biopolymer, each link of which (nucleotide) consists of a nitrogenous base and a phosphoric acid residue (phosphate group), connected by the deoxyribose sugar.
Individual nucleotides are able to combine into the longer molecules due to the fact that deoxyribose can place two phosphate groups on different sides (on the side of 3’ and 5’ carbon in Figure 1), so that the neighboring nucleotides can be located on top of each other providing a basis for the chains. If the chains consist of only a few nucleotides, then the compounds are called oligonucleotides; if the chains consist of many nucleotides, such compounds are called polynucleotides or nucleic acids.
For further purposes, it is important to note that the entire chain in an aqueous solution takes the form of a helix, in which the nitrogenous bases are closer to the helix axis and are located above each other with a slight twiststabilizing the molecule along the chain by the so-called π-π interaction. The phosphate groups remain at the helix periphery. Under physiological conditions (pH ≈ 7.4) they lose hydrogen cation becoming negatively charged which stabilizes the DNA helix in the direction perpendicular to the chain.
Each human cell capable of cell division contains about 2 meters of DNA, tightly packed into a nucleus with the dimensions of ~10 µm. DNA is present in most living cells for a certain reason: this molecule acts as an instruction for protein assembly from amino acids, encoding this information in the form of a sequence of nitrogenous bases that are included in the DNA nucleotides. The specific interaction of bases allows the cell to copy its DNA strand for transmission to a daughter cell. The same interaction underlies the DNA origami method and therefore deserves a more detailed description.
Each nucleotide (building block of the DNA chain) contains one of four nitrogenous bases: Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Guanine (G) or Cytosine (C). Due to the special structure of these molecules (Fig. 1a), the nitrogenous bases efficiently interact with each other only in pairs: the G-C pair generates a triple hydrogen bond, the A-T pair generates a double one (Fig. 1b). Due to this specific interaction, the so-called “complementarity principle”, two DNA sections can connect when approaching each other and form a linked double-stranded structure only when the suitable letters appear in the opposite section.
Thus an AAAA oligonucleotide will combine with a TTTT oligonucleotide, since in this case each base will bind its complementary pair, generating a double-stranded helix section consisting of 4 links. The TTTG oligonucleotide will be 3/4 bound by the AAAA oligonucleotide since one pair will not be formed. In this case the unpaired links A and G will remain in a partially free state in the solution (“sticky ends”), while interacting with water (Fig. 1b). In the case of TTGG, only 2 / 4 of the bonds are formed, in the case of TGGG – 1 / 4 bonds. If the second oligonucleotide does not have any complementary bases (for example, AAAA or CCCC), there will be no interaction that can compete in bond energy with water, therefore, the chain will not be formed.
In practice two more circumstances need to be considered: 1) the hydrogen bonds have a cooperative effect: each subsequent one is formed easier than the previous (the bond energy depends on the number of links in a nonlinear way); 2) the environmental thermal influence tends to break the bonds: with a gradual increase in temperature, the weakest double-stranded pair AAAA – TGGG will be separated (“melted”) first, and the AAAA – TTTT pair will be the last one. Thus, a properly chosen thermal treatment provides the basis of the DNA origami self-assembly process.
It is necessary to pay attention to one more feature of the DNA molecular structure: if one observes the bond order inside the complementary DNA chains, he could notice that they alternate in different ways, as if one of them was ascending (from the 3’ sugar atom to the 5’), and the second was descending (from 5’ to 3’). This is due to deoxyribose asymmetry: the detached 5’ carbon is located only on one side. The biological processes in cells involving DNA have a certain direction (for example, the enzymatic DNA synthesis in a cell proceeds from 5’ to 3’). The DNA origami simulation and assembly processes must also consider the directional properties; for this purpose, the 3’ end is usually designated in the layouts by an arrow.
Finally, the general geometric parameters of the DNA chain are given in Fig. 1c. They are important to us since they set fundamental restrictions on the assembly accuracy when using the DNA origami method. The distance between neighboring nitrogenous bases in the chain is ~0.34 nm, the full helix pitch distance corresponds to ~10.67 base pairs, and its diameter is ~2 nm.
2. Principal approaches to the DNA origami assembly
In the first papers devoted to the use of DNA nanotechnology [32] has been proposed to apply the so-called Holliday junctions representing the short partially complementary oligonucleotides capable of forming a lattice due to their sticky ends (Fig. 2a, b). Despite the variety of lattices that can be obtained in this way, the method has turned out to be inefficient and soon has given way to the revolutionary approach proposed by Rothemund [33]. According to this method, the long single-stranded DNA (“scaffold”) is folded in solution using the specially selected short oligonucleotides that act as the staples (Fig. 2c). Currently, most papers are based on this method, the single-stranded DNA of the bacteriophage m8mh13 consisting of ~7 250 nucleotides being the most often scaffold choice. Synthetic oligonucleotides with the length of several tens of nucleotides are used as the staples.
The main 2D-origami assembly concept in the Rothemund’s approach (Fig. 3a) was as follows: since the scaffold is a single-stranded DNA helix with a length of 10.67 bases, each nitrogenous base is rotated relative to the previous one by 360/10.67 ≈ 33.73°. This means that every 16th base will alternate the “up” and “down” directions, since 16 links correspond to one and a half turns of the helix (16*33.73 ≈ 540°). Thus, if the staples are selected so that their free ends fall on every 16th scaffold nucleotide, they can be used to tie its various sections, folding the scaffold into a “snake” in a 2D layer. Some examples of 2D nanostructures thus made are shown in Fig. 4a.
Over time [34], the same principle was used to exit from the planar 2D geometry into the third dimension. To do this, it was proposed to use every 7th nucleotide in the scaffold instead of every 16th (Fig. 3b) which made it possible to connect individual scaffold sections into a honeycomb lattice with the angles of 120°. Based on the honeycomb lattice stable molecular 3D DNA origami structures can be made. The method was further developed and today it is known as a multilayer DNA origami [31].
It should be noted that other approaches to 3D DNA origami are being developed. One example is based on the tensional integrity engineering principle (“tensegrity”), when the structure is self-stabilized due to accurately adjusted balance of elements used for compression and tension. This approach hitherto used in architecture (see, for example, the Kurilpa Bridge, Brisbane, Australia) can be successfully transferred to the DNA origami nanoobjects. For example, in [37] it is shown that DNA nanoprisms can be made using the tensegrity design principle.
At present, DNA origami is a living and dynamically developing area, offering new approaches and creating new opportunities for 3D nanodesign [38]. Fig 4b shows an example of 3D DNA origami box which can be readily opened by an addition of special key oligonucleotides. The box can contain whatever one would choose, examples being fluorescent dyes or drugs. The outer walls of the box can be modified for targeted delivery to protect contents from environment. Fig 4c provides an example of arbitrary-shape molecular design created with the DNA origami, which can serve as an illustration of unlimited capabilities of the method.
Conclusion
DNA origami is a method of controlled bottom-up molecular assembly of geometric nanostructures, which provides an ability to target each element of the nanostructure for attaching almost any chemical agent: from small dye molecules to the proteins and metal nanoparticles. The nanometer precision in the arrangement of nano-objects and high reproducibility of this method open the door to many prospective applications in various research fields. We are planning to develop this thesis some more and talk about DNA origami practice as well as its importance for a number of applied and theoretical problems in photonics in the second part of the article.
Acknowledgments
The work was carried out with financial support from the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation within the framework of the state assignment of the Moscow Pedagogical State University “Physics of nanostructured materials and highly sensitive sensors: synthesis, fundamental research and applications in photonics, life sciences, quantum and nanotechnologies”.
AUTHORS
Stepanov Maksim Evgenievich, junior researcher, Moscow Pedagogical State University (MPGU), Shpolskiy Department of Theoretical Physics, junior researcher at the Laboratory of Physics of Advanced Materials and Nanostructures, Moscow, Russia.
RSCI ID: 334465, Scopus ID: 57195265809, ResearcherID: AAB‑6181-2022,
ORCID: 0000-0002-0332-1235.
Khokhryakova Uliana Aleksandrovna – Bachelor in fundamental physics of Moscow Pedagogical State University, research assistant at the Youth Laboratory of Biophotonics and Nanoengineering, Moscow, Russia.
Egorova Tatiana Vladimirovna, Cand. of Sc. (Biolog.), head of the Youth Laboratory of Biophotonics and Nanoengineering< MPGU, Moscow, Russia.
Scopus ID: 56868341400, ORCID: 0000-0002-7554-5246,
ResearcherID: P‑9982-2017.
Magaryan Konstantin Arutyunovich, Cand. of Sc.(Phys.&Math.), MPSU, Shpolskiy Department of Theor.Physics, senior researcher, Lab. of Physics of Advanced Materials and Nanostructures.
RSCI ID: 723988, ResearcherID: A‑4208-2014, ORCID: 0000-0003-4754-4657.
Naumov Andrey Vitalievich, corresponding member of the RAS, Dr. of Sc. (Phys.&Math.), head of the Troitsk branch of the Lebedev Physical Institute, head of the Shpol’skii theor. physics chair, MPGU, associate prof., Moscow, Russia.
RSCI ID: 35867, Scopus ID: 7201349036, ResearcherID: E‑8905-2010,
ORCID: 0000-0001-7938-9802.
CONFLICT OF INTERESTS
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. All authors took part in preparation of the article and supplemented the manuscript in terms of their scope of work.
CONTRIBUTION
OF THE COMPOSITE AUTHORS
The article has been prepared based on the work of all composite authors.
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